English and Children with Special Educational Needs in Key Stages 1 and 2

Dyslexia or specific literacy difficulties

Dyslexia or specific literacy difficulties has been the focus of intensive research and controversies. First identified in 1896, dyslexia was first described as "congenital word blindness," and for many years the dominant view was that dyslexia is caused by visual processing deficiencies (Snowling, 1996).

A current useful definition of dyslexia avoids discussion of the causes and focuses on the main presenting problem:

‘Dyslexia is evident when accurate and fluent word reading and/or spelling develops very incompletely or with great difficulty. This focuses on literacy at the ‘word level’ and implies that the problem is severe and persistent despite appropriate learning opportunities.’
(British Psychological Society, 1999)

The definition reflects the fact that most research into dyslexia or specific literacy difficulties has tended to focus on reading at the level of the ‘word’ as opposed to reading in any broader sense. However, recently, there has been a growing trend towards convergence between research into dyslexia, broader issues of reading and general reading problems (Klein and McMullen 1998).

Convergence

In addition to difficulties with reading and spelling, characteristics of children with dyslexia are often cited as including difficulties with sequencing, memory, language, vision difficulties when focusing on print, and balance. These symptoms may be evident in individuals to a greater or lesser extent but recent researchers have converged in their identification of one major cause. Many are agreed dyslexia is not a visual problem but a language-related problem mainly in the area of phonological processing connected to specific areas of brain function ie children and adults have difficulty in perceiving and remembering sounds in words (Snowling 1996, Vellutino 1995, Metsala, Stanovich and Brown 1998). A major factor in arriving at this view has been the role of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) which allows the brain to be observed in the process of reading.

Research using MRI scans has been able to shed light on some much discussed aspects of dyslexia. Recent findings include:

• The finding (controversial for many) that children who are dyslexic demonstrate the same characteristics as those who are diagnosed simply as have reading problems. In a UK Channel 4 television programme (8 September 2005), Professor Frank Vellutino (Albany University, US) and  Professor Margaret Snowling (York University, UK) stated that their recent research now confirmed this point, although they had long held the opposite view.
• The finding that dyslexia affects children and people of all abilities and ages. In other words dyslexia is no longer seen as a condition which occurs when there is a discrepancy between IQ and reading ability (reported in Fletcher Campbell, 2000).
• Confirmation through analysis of brain scans that patterns of dyslexia or reading problems tend to run in families.
• The finding that early intervention and support can improve reading performance and effect improvements in reading visible on MRI.

Spectacles or patches which cover one eye, coloured lenses and coloured overlays are frequently advocated for children diagnosed as dyslexic. While there is empirical evidence that overlays help some readers, those who are helped by this suffer from ‘Meares-Irlen’ or ‘scotopic sensitivity’ syndrome (Fletcher-Campbell, 2000)

Dyslexia may include children who have difficulties both with reading and spelling or mainly with spelling. For a discussion of this issue see section on Spelling difficulties.

References

• British Psychological Society (1999) Working Party Of The Division Of Educational And Child Psychology Dyslexia, Literacy and Psychological Assessment, Leicester: British Psychological Society
• Fletcher-Campbell, F. (2000) (ed) Literacy and Special Educational Needs: A Review of the Literature, Research Report No 227, DfES
• Klein R.M. and McMullen P.A. (eds) (1998) Converging Methods for Understanding Reading and Dyslexia, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass
• Metsala, J. L., Stanovich, K. E., and Brown, G. D. A. (1998) ‘Regularity effects and the phonological deficit model of reading disabilities: A meta-analytic review’ Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, pp 279-293. http://leo.oise.utoronto.ca/~kstanovich/reading.html#
• Snowling, M. (1996) British Medical Journal, ‘Dyslexia, a hundred years on’, BMJ 313 pp 1096-1097 (2 November) http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/313/7065/1096
• Vellutino, F., Scanlon, D.M. and Spearing, D. (1995) Semantic and phonological coding in poor and normal readers, Journal of Experimental Psychology, No 59 pp 76-123